Presentation Sample on Cognitive Science

Presentation Sample on Cognitive Science Cognitive Science Overview of the David Rosenthal’s Higher-Order-Theory (HOT Theory) When the word HOT theory or Higher-Order-Theory is mentioned, the question that comes to the mind of a learner is: What could be the meaning of HOT theory or what does higher-order-theory means in actual sense? For the sake of those who might not have come across this theory, HOT theory or what is also known as Higher-Order-Theory in the perspective of David Rosenthal, is described in various ways as indicated herein: There is no mental condition that is conscious if one is not aware of that condition. Thus, a mental condition or state is considered conscious only if one is aware of the himself/herself as being in that condition. David also adds that human beings are aware of mental conditions that are conscious just by having ideas that one is in that condition. In the perspective of David, the higher order-thoughts are rare of conscious thoughts; they are different from states they are about. The standard procedure applied to differentiate mental consciousness in daily psychologies involves a differentiation made in the context that an individual is in a position to report his/her mental condition. However, David adds that humans cannot report mental conditions that are not conscious in nature. Another important issue that should be noted in the higher-order-thought is that higher-order-thoughts accompany mental conditions, hence enabling one to make mental condition reports. Humans do not have higher-order knowledge of mental conditions and thus are not conscious, hence cannot r eport their mental states. What are the Basic Tenets of David Rosenthal’s Theory? So what exactly are the tenets or the basic components of David Rosenthal’s Higher-Order-Theory? I am confident that many people, interested in learning various aspects of this theory may want to determine what exactly makes this theory. That is, what are the basic tenets of this theory? To begin with, Rosenthal’s theory is based in three major tenets. These tenets are the first order experience, second/higher-order-thought and the third order-thought. Rosenthal believes that these three tenets are what enable an individual to express his mental conditions or mental state, without necessarily having to report them. These tenets make the Higher-Order-theory a unique aspect of theory owing to the fact that: The conscious mental condition of a person entails that the person has thoughts or sensation about his mental state. In this regard, the conscious state is usually accompanied by series of rough simultaneous higher-order-thoughts concerning a specific mental condition. That is, the consciousness mental condition of a person is introspectively complemented by a second level higher-order-thought. That is, the unconscious state of the mind is complemented by the conscious mental state, which is also complemented by the introspective conscious condition. An example of the unconscious state occurs when is not aware of his state of mind, hence cannot make sense of any information. In relation to the conscious state, or what David refers to second level higher-order-thought, one is a position to determine his state of mind, but cannot make report of this state. The second level higher-order-thought is usually complemented by the introspective state where one is able to analyze and examine data, hence provide a report about it. Positive Criticism of David’s Higher-Order-Theory Many philosophers and scholars who support David’s higher-order-theory hold the view that consciousness can be explained by the relationship between two main levels of mental conditions, whereby the higher-order mental condition assumes another mental condition. This aspect may occur through sensation or thought. This may occur in situations such as; a person using a computer acquires the sensation of the black and white color of his/her computer. Such aspects of sensations are usually considered conscious by virtue of higher-order-theories, basically because an individual has a higher order state concerning such sensations. Supporters of David’s higher-order-theory have also applied the concept of two distinctions that are important in the differentiation of consciousness among creatures. The first distinction may be made among creatures using conditional consciousness as well as introspective consciousness. The second distinction is usually referred as transitive as it entails a consideration of an object; that is distinction made on the basis of binary relationship between elements for instance such that if a situation applies is i.e. A where A is considered wider than B and B is wider than C, the A is automatically wider than C. Negative Critics/ Criticism As learners, it is important that we explore various arguments concerning theories that have been proposed by many researchers. That is, a consideration of both the positive perspectives as well as opposing perspectives. This is a crucial part of learning; it increases our knowledge, by enhancing our understanding of the reasons why people have different perspectives and their impacts on issues. Considering the case of David’s Higher-Order-Theory, there are two main critics that are known by their eloquence and fierceness in relation to expressing their critical views, coupled by application of evidence. The main two critics of this theory are: Kati Balog: He is known for his fierce expression of ideas, and critical analysis on different issues. Apparently, Kati Balog has also made significant contributions in regard to enhancing the understanding of David Rosenthal’s theory and other crucial issues associated with it. In his view, David-s Higher-Order-Theory was presented in a wrong manner. He emphasizes that David was wrong to claim that his theory is self-evident by linking awareness of the state and consciousness. He also believes that David did not account for how individuals can access certain aspects of mental conditions and report through verbal channels. As such, this theory was characterized by limited explanation, that is, through the failure to define the phenomenal properties being indicated in the statements. In this aspect, Kati Balog believes that David Rosenthal was wrong by terming or calling this theory a theory of access consciousness, as he should have named it phenomenal consciousness theory. An other major weakness exhibited in this theory according to Kati Balog is that it appears to have shown that there is a likelihood of inaccessible mental conditions, despite the fact that there is simultaneous occurrence of awareness and consciousness. On this account, Kati Balog believes that the Higher-Order-Theory does not appear to highlight how the access to consciousness is achieved. Lastly, he believes that the explanation provided by Rosenthal is not satisfactory in nature in a field that is characterized by persuading theorists and metaphysical aspects of argument. Papineau: He has also provided his views on David’s Higher-Order Theory. He asserts that this theory has propagated a false dilemma among learners, due to the manner through, which it is over-simplified. Papineau also argues that David presented his theory in an ambiguous manner. The false dilemma created by this theory according to Papineau is based on the fact that the status of experience relies on judgments made later or the later higher-level order memory. That is, one mental state depends on the next level mental state to make judgments. Papineau also argues that David’s higher-order-theory is a type of theory that causes a threat to backwards causation of consciousness; that is a consciousness that relies on a later judgment from higher-order-thoughts. He explains that this backwards causation occurs as a result of the denial of phenomenally experienced states/conditions. What are the Insights/Lessons that we can learn from this theory? I hope all of us are aware of the fact that theories are meant to improve our insights and widen our scope of reasoning. From David’s theory, there are various lessons that we can learn. To begin with, this theory, through the three main tenets of consciousness, enables us to understand that reasoning process occurs through states. The first state is characterized by unconscious nature of the mind that is usually complemented by a higher-order thought, the conscious state of the mind, which is also ultimately complemented by the introspective state of the mind. The other lesson that we can learn from this theory is that the nature of state of consciousness between animas and human beings are different. Animals or what David refers as creatures make judgment through conditional consciousness, while reasoning and reporting among humans is made through what is referred as transitive consciousness as it is usually based in an object. In summary, there are various issues that emerge from an analysis of David’s theory on a similar basis like any other theory. The first issue is that this theory is made of three main tenets, the introspective, higher-order thought and the unconscious state. This theory has also been a subject to both positive and negative aspects of criticism, although there are no discussions from David indicating his counter-arguments in relation to negative critics. The theory is also an indication of how scholars have an understanding of various issues ascribed to psychological facets. We can also learn that some critics have provided proof that there is neural evidence that has led to the realization of higher-order-theory enabling individuals to be aware of their mental conditions. This awareness is deemed necessary for making mental conditions report, however, there are alternatives that provide suggestions which dispute the necessity of metal awareness. These critics have emphasized that there is a significant difference between other theories of the brain and Rosenthal’s theory. This is mainly due to the fact that Rosenthal method does not indicate empirical commitment to the philosophical approaches consciousness theory for instance: It cannot provide explanations how an individual can have dreams and fails to explain the dream a few hours later.

Pest Analysis of Russian Retail Market - 1179 Words

PEST Analysis The PEST analysis is used in this report to evaluate the political, economic, social and technological aspects of the macroeconomic environment in the targeted market, Russia. This study helps to frame the basis for the decision-making about a possible market entry. Thus, it is of vital importance to scrutinize the macroeconomic environment as part of the market research. Political and Legal Aspects According to the Russian 1993 Constitution, Russia is a democratic federative state with a republican form of government grounded in the rule of law (pwc, 2012). After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has gradually opened up and after a seven-year transitional period with numerous market reforms, political stability†¦show more content†¦(pwc, 2012) The country further integrated within the world economy by entering the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2012 (Datamonitor, 2011). Economic Aspects Russia of 2011 is characterized by a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16.750, GDP and FDI growth of 4.3% and 33% respectively. Furthermore, the ease of doing business in the country improved by 4 ranks between 2011 and 2012 and hence Russia is ranked 112th in 2012 (Datamonitor, 2011; pwc, 2012). Historically successful economic reforms during the 1990s led to liberalization of the Russian economy and to high growth rates. Yet, the global economic downturn beginning in 2008 led to a negative growth of 7.7% in 2009. However, the country’s economy managed to quickly recover, achieving a 3.9% GDP growth in 2010, mainly due to the high oil prices (Datamonitor, 2011). Improved competitiveness and higher oil prices facilitated a turnaround in the current account, from a deficit in 1998 to a surplus of 12% of GDP in 1999. Since 2000, Russia has maintained a current account surplus, which dropped from around $102bn in 2008 to around $47bn in 2009 (Datamonitor, 2011; pwc, 2012). 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Continual risks of postoperative condition Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) ? Answer: Introduction In case of arthroscopic surgeries, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus are common. The ACL helps to stabilize and provide support to the joints. In the case scenario, Mr. James Versace is 17 years old adolescent, who is a soccer player. He faced problem in exercise and pain. Other medical problems of Mr. Versace are asthma, dermatitis, subluxed his left patella, allergic problem and hayfever. The assignment discusses about the continual risks of postoperative condition. The current therapeutic regime is discussed that helps to reduce the risk factors. In the section, manual therapy, rationale, and intervention are discussed. The benefits of evidenced based nursing are discussed. Continual risks of postoperative condition Westermann et al. (2014) mentioned that every surgery has some risks that is known as the complication. However, the meniscus repair is one of the safest processes, in which the risk rate is 1.3%. The main complication of the meniscus repair is the injuries to the skin nerves. Other complications of the postoperative condition are knee stiffness and infection, which are uncommon but can occur. In such circumstances, Wasserstein et al. (2013) mentioned that the doctors need to minimize the risks of complications that will help the patient to overcome the surgical risks. In the case scenario, Mr. Versace has various health complications. Therefore, before the medication, the doctor and nurse need to check his medical history as he has allergic problem. He has allergies in lactose, cashews, animal fur, peanuts, and pollen. Therefore, the nurse needs to be careful about his diet as well, which may increase the complications of the postoperative condition. The nurse needs to observe him a nd provide intensive care to avoid the infection. He needs to take complete bed rest and avoid the alcohol consumption. From the case scenario, it is clear that Mr. Versace takes alcohol occasionally. Therapeutic regime In postoperative condition, the doctor can suggest about the rehabilitation to the patient that will help them to get over the problem. The rehabilitation technique with the sound rehabilitation plays major role in the treatment of the meniscus repair. With the medication, the physiotherapy is also important that will help in leg movement. As Mr. Versace is an adolescent athlete, he needs to get over the problem as earlier as possible. In such cases, physical therapy helps the patient to get back in his normal life. To provide the quality to the patient, who has gone through arthroscopic surgeries, need to understand the biomechanics. Achtnich et al. (2016) suggested that with the medication, the physical exercise is necessary that can help the patient to avoid the complication. The clinical evaluation and the treatment techniques ensure the optimal outcomes. In such circumstance, communication plays key role. The nurse needs to have proper communication skill that will help to know about the patient requirement. In such condition, the medical lab reports can help the nurses as well to know about the condition of the patient. Therefore, the nurse needs to check the lab reports minutely. Manual therapy The main purposes of the manual therapy are to modulate the pain, increase the motion range, reduce the soft tissues inflammation, improve the contractile tissue repair with the extensibility, and facilitate the movement. As mentioned by Forkel et al. (2015), manual therapy refers to the application of the manual forces of therapist to improve quality and range of motion of the soft tissues and joints. Michalitsis et al. (2015) mentioned that the mobilization is one of the manual technique, which replicate the normal joint via the repeated passive motion at the low speed. The normal joint moves smoothly at varying amplitudes. On the other, Chahla et al. (2016) defined that manipulation is the fast and small force with the small amplitude, in which the joint is moved in high speed. The manual therapy helps to improve the joint mobility and joint function. In case of Mr. Versace, he needs the manual therapy as well so that he can be able to play soccer again. In case of manual therapy, the joint glides need particular planes so that the movement can be done smoothly. In case of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus, manual therapy helps the patient in movement (Anderson Anderson, 2015). This helps to reduce the complications of arthroscopic surgeries and provide benefits to the patient. Nursing intervention The patient Mr. Versace is 17 years old male, who have been admitted for the arthroscopic surgeries due to anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus. In the current context, the main problems are prioritized to manage his pain and knee movement problem. Managing pain: For managing the pain, the pain score needs to be managed with the pain measuring scale. This is based on the pain management plan, which needs to be developed. To reduce the pain, the doctor suggested diclofenac and mentioned the dosage of the drug to 25 mg. therefore the patient takes 1 to 2 tablets daily for the pain management. The oral medication helps him to reduce the pain. Duchman et al. . (2015) suggested that when the pain of the pain will be reduced, he will be able to move his knee and the complications will be reduced as well. Managing asthma and allergy: The patient is suffering from asthma and allergy problem. To reduce the problems he needs to modify his dietary habit first. He needs to exclude the peanuts and cashews from the diet. The nurse needs to monitor the patient and note down the problems of the patient. Mr. Versace needs to take sufficient amount of water that helps to maintain the fluid balance of the patient body. The doctor prescribed some drugs to reduce the problems of the asthma and allergy. The nurse needs to follow the medication routine of the patient and provide the medication timely. Mr. Versace needs to take the salbutamol 100 mg with the CFC inhaler. The dosages need to be maintained. Another medication includes flticasone, advantan, prednisolone and epipen. The administration of the injection needs proper routes and dosage. The nurse should be careful about the routes and dosage. Rationale Nurse responsibility Rationale Check the administration of medication (drugs and injections) Before administration of drugs, the nurse should check dosage and route. However, the dosage needs to be applied in a safe level (Shybut et al. 2015). Overdose of the medication is fatal for the patient. The overdose of the drugs that are prescribed for the asthma and allergy can be fatal for Mr. Versace. Therefore, the nurse needs to recheck the dosage of the medication. Check symptoms of the patient The medication and injection needs to be provided after detecting the signs and symptoms of the patient. As the patient has various problems, therefore the medication should be provided carefully. Check route with dosage of medication administration The nurse needs to check the dosage and route of the medication. Proper implication of medication can help the patient to reduce the problems and get well soon. Observe the patient after medication The medication is provided to reduce effects of asthma, allergy, and pain. The nurse should monitor the patient, which help to develop the patients health. Take the consent of the patient and family members Before applying the medication, the nurse needs to take the consent of the patient and his family members (Mall et al. 2014). Table 1: Rationale of nursing intervention The benefits of evidenced based nursing Evidence based nursing has various benefits, which include to provide the quality care to the patient. The quality care helps to improve the patient outcomes (Hamer Collinson, 2014). The evidence based nursing helps the nurses to increase their skills as well as the critical thinking and decision-making. As result, the clinical performance of the nurse develops with the experience. Evidence based nursing helps to provide knowledge and satisfaction to the nurses as it helps to enhance the patient outcomes. Implementation of the evidence-based practice can manage the available resources, which is used effectively and efficiently (DiCenso, Guyatt Ciliska, 2014). However, there are various barriers that needs to be reduced to increase the rate of positive patient outcome. Conclusion Based on the above discussion, it can be said that the meniscus repair is one of the safest processes, in which the risk rate is less. As the patient has various problems including asthma and allergies, therefore the medication process should be done properly. the patient needs to take the medication timely and should take rest that will help him to get back in the normal lifestyle. In such cases, the physical therapy and manual therapy provide relief to the patient. Hence, it is necessary for the patient. The fluid balance of the patients body needs to be maintained, which helps in the treatment. As well as the patient needs to be careful about the diet and avoid the foods that can create allergic problem. References Achtnich, A., Herbst, E., Forkel, P., Metzlaff, S., Sprenker, F., Imhoff, A. B., Petersen, W. (2016). Acute proximal anterior cruciate ligament tears: outcomes after arthroscopic suture anchor repair versus anatomic single-bundle reconstruction.Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic Related Surgery,32(12), 2562-2569. Anderson, A. F., Anderson, C. N. (2015). Correlation of meniscal and articular cartilage injuries in children and adolescents with timing of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.The American journal of sports medicine,43(2), 275-281. Chahla, J., Dean, C. S., Moatshe, G., Mitchell, J. J., Cram, T. R., Yacuzzi, C., LaPrade, R. F. (2016). Meniscal Ramp Lesions: Anatomy, Incidence, Diagnosis, and Treatment.Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine,4(7), 2325967116657815. DiCenso, A., Guyatt, G., Ciliska, D. (2014).Evidence-based nursing: A guide to clinical practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Duchman, K. R., Westermann, R. W., Spindler, K. P., Reinke, E. K., Huston, L. J., Amendola, A., Wolf, B. R. (2015). The fate of meniscus tears left in situ at the time of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a 6-year follow-up study from the MOON cohort.The American journal of sports medicine,43(11), 2688-2695. Forkel, P., Reuter, S., Sprenker, F., Achtnich, A., Herbst, E., Imhoff, A., Petersen, W. (2015). Different patterns of lateral meniscus root tears in ACL injuries: application of a differentiated classification system.Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy,23(1), 112-118. Hamer, S., Collinson, G. (2014).Achieving evidence-based practice: A handbook for practitioners. Elsevier Health Sciences. Mall, N. A., Chalmers, P. N., Moric, M., Tanaka, M. J., Cole, B. J., Bach Jr, B. R., Paletta Jr, G. A. (2014). Incidence and trends of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in the United States.The American journal of sports medicine,42(10), 2363-2370. Michalitsis, S., Vlychou, M., Malizos, K. N., Thriskos, P., Hantes, M. E. (2015). Meniscal and articular cartilage lesions in the anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee: correlation between time from injury and knee scores.Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy,23(1), 232-239. Shybut, T. B., Vega, C. E., Haddad, J., Alexander, J. W., Gold, J. E., Noble, P. C., Lowe, W. R. (2015). Effect of lateral meniscal root tear on the stability of the anterior cruciate ligamentdeficient knee.The American journal of sports medicine,43(4), 905-911. Wasserstein, D., Dwyer, T., Gandhi, R., Austin, P. C., Mahomed, N., Ogilvie-Harris, D. (2013). A matched-cohort population study of reoperation after meniscal repair with and without concomitant anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.The American journal of sports medicine,41(2), 349-355. Westermann, R. W., Wright, R. W., Spindler, K. P., Huston, L. J., Wolf, B. R. (2014). Meniscal repair with concurrent anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: operative success and patient outcomes at 6-year follow-up.The American journal of sports medicine,42(9), 2184-2192.

Darwins influence on psychoanalysis free essay sample

Charles Darwin’s substantially influential writing examines a vast rang of topics that were brought to the attention of many leading scholars throughout history. Darwin preceded Sigmund Freud and the invention of psychoanalysis by approximately 50 years. Through the exploration of Darwinian theory and the later development of psychoanalysis, it is clear that Charles Darwin’s theories had a profound influence of the development of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. This becomes clear after analyzing such themes as sexual motivation through evolution, the Freudian ego, the connection between human and animal emotion, adaptive responses and the unconscious mind. Sexual Evolution and Motivation Darwin and Freud both evaluated the connection between biological traits and inheritance as expressed through social constructs, such as sexual impulses and desire. This theory manifests itself by examining human biology, neurology, evolution and applying it to expressed behavioural traits. A fundamental and intrinsic element of human behaviour stems from evolutionary adaptations in which basic desires are adapted through the recognition of success from earlier generations. We will write a custom essay sample on Darwins influence on psychoanalysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Through this evolution, both Darwin and Freud placed an enormous emphasis on an individual’s desire for survival, the ultimate goal being self-preservation. Darwin and Freud’s theories converge at the point of primal and instinctive behaviour. Darwin’s most relevant discovery was natural selection. He approached his work as purely biological by viewing humans as primates. He explains â€Å"their forms of behaviour and social organization as natural manifestations of their elementary biological dispositions for survival and reproduction†(Carroll, 52). This meant that the motivation for sexual reproduction was unconscious and biologically wired into human for their survival. The human with the most efficient and best adapted traits were more likely to survive. Choosing a mate is based upon the Darwinian psychological theory that â€Å"views attractiveness in terms of reproductive fitness†(Cartwright, 56). Humans choose mates that appear physically fit and fertile, resulting in a child Who is also physically fit. Freud’s theories parallel Darwin’s but were taken a step further. The primary sexual motivation through desiring survival traits and reproduction was the foundation for Freud’s belief in two basic impulses of man, pleasure and self- preservation. Psychoanalysis does not focus on the same behaviour over and over again, â€Å"but about the recognition of constantly changing and shifting individual†(Westerink, 87) where a psychoanalyst would examine repressed behaviour from â€Å"symptoms back to their origin†(Westerink, 88). Freud also placed an emphasis on viewing humans as having primal sexual urges similar to that of primates but incorporated humans as pleasure seekers. He endeavoured to understand how the combination of pleasure seeking, individual needs could coexist with reproduction in the name of evolution. The conclusion was that â€Å"evolution does not take place without periods of decline, reaction or restoration†(Westerink, 101), therein lies the need for evolution. But most notably, humans must rely on reality to reign in and control the need for pleasure and understand the true motivation of sexual desire, reproduction. To Freud, the desire for pleasure and immediate satisfaction factors into sexual motivation but also â€Å"the individual does carry on a two fold existence; one to serve his own purposes and the other as a link in the chain†(Sharpe Faulkner, 39), a chain to have enduring genetics. This Freudian theory coincides with Darwin’s belief in altruism. By recognizing the success of your species as individual success, the group will have a greater chance of survival and continue to reproduce. This begs the question if Darwin’s altruistic theories were truly unselfish but actually â€Å"particular people achieve their own pleasure and satisfaction†(Radcliffe, 175). Freud combined the influence of Darwin’s natural selection, with his own theory regarding the pleasure principle. Darwin’s evolutionary theories factored greatly into the development of sexual motivation from a biological standpoint allowing Freud creates a picture of sexual evolution from a more evolved psyche in the early 20th century. The Connection Between Human and Animal Emotion Freud and Darwin both assessed the human capacity for emotion, where this form of communication originated and the value of its expression. In doing so, they both equated the origin of emotional expression as being very similar to the primal need for communication through adaptive responses. In Darwin’s book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, he discusses the human mind and how it related to the animal mind through evolution. His writings again are biological in nature and deal with emotion as a tool for survival. In his writing, Darwin notes, emotion â€Å"is of importance to our welfare. They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant†(Darwin, 364) Darwin’s writings reveal an in depth study of the expression of emotion ranging from the actual physiological acts involved in emotion to the special expression of man. His research confirms, â€Å"man is derived from some lower animal form†(Darwin, 365). The emotions studied are wide ranging such as suffering, fear, anxiety, love, guilt and anger. For example, Darwin observes the act of weeping as an infant. This leads him to believe that when an infant weeps, he or she is expecting a result, whether that be food, attention or the relief from a state of suffering. The infant will â€Å"cry out loudly, like the young of other animals, partly as a call to their parents for aid and partly from any great exertion†(Darwin, 174). Darwin’s observations of emotion, particularly that of a child resembles very closely to Freud’s id. The id represents the most basic inherited instincts that are most obvious during childhood and expressed through emotion. â€Å"The infant, possessing no ability to delay release, demands immediate gratification†(Cordon, 223). The newborn would then be â€Å"a creature entirely governed by the id†¦demanding food, drink, eliminating bodily waste and affection†(Cordon, 223). Once the child’s needs are met, they are content. This theory contributes to the desire for pleasure and the distaste for anything uncomfortable or as Freud described it, the pleasure principle. Darwin is related this behaviour and expression for emotion as a survival tactic in order to have the infants needs met through communication. Morality and the Ego Darwin and Freud’s theories both weighed heavily on the similarity between man and animal. There is a primal urge exhibited through emotion, sexual motivation and the search for pleasure as seen in Freud’s id and Darwin’s observations of adolescents. But what did these men say about censoring that primal behaviour to live in harmony with others? It appears that Darwin had an influence over Freud’s explanation of morality as well. There was a demand for balance during evolutionary stages in which â€Å"Darwin†¦[recognized] a fundamental fact of evolution, accept a basic moral intuition†(Zamulinski, 5). This morality is seen as an adaptation to provide group harmony and avoid isolation or seclusion and ultimately death. Darwin speaks at length regarding a biological kinship, which relates to the previously discussed notion of altruism. There is a community of organisms living together and working towards the goal of survival and preservation. For this to occur there must be harmony within the group. Darwin describes this harmony as having an individual sense of morality. Treating the members of your own group well is known as Group Selection and â€Å"group selection does provide a setting in which helping behaviour directed at members of one’s own group can evolve†(Zamulinski, 11). Freud adapted this sense of morality into something he referred to as the Ego. The Ego is what interacts with the conscious part of the mind and it works along side the id to delay the impulse for immediate gratification. The Freudian theory of the ego gives the mind the ability to interact consciously with the world and because of this it connects humans with reality. The primitive id â€Å"must conform to the limitations agreed on by the society in which the child is growing up†(Cordon, 225). This is the role of the Ego, acting as somewhat of a â€Å"referee or mediator constantly negotiating the conflicts that inevitably arise†(Cordon, 224) when the id and the ego interact with one another. The mind will then connect with what is socially acceptable and adheres to the moral guidelines of society. Both Freud and Darwin felt that in order to have individual evolutionary success, one must belong to a group and in order for this group to have evolutionary success there must be behavioural guidelines. Having boundaries for acceptable behaviour, moral obligations and censorship within the mind proved relevant to both Freud and Darwin regarding self-preservation. Adaptive Responses In order for survival of the fittest to occur, humans must be able to maintain mental stability. This stability is seen as emotional adaptive responses that appear in both Darwinian theories and psychoanalysis. According to â€Å"Darwinian psychology, mental health can be seen as the proper functioning of an adaptive emotional system†(Cartwright, 75). When human emotion adapts to the environment, there is a greater chance for survival and a heightened mental stability. In evolutionary terms for example â€Å"anxiety response and manifestations of over anxiousness can be seen in terms of an adaptive response to signals from the environment†(Cartwright, 94) or heightened sense of awareness. This sense of awareness can be used as a tool for defence and protection. Freud also concerned himself with the state of mental health and the minds ability to create defence mechanisms for the purpose of protection. For example, lets look at the earlier discussed ego in which it contains â€Å"a specialized set of tools intended to minimize the anxiety resulting from internal conflict†(Cordon, 227). These defence mechanisms occur automatically and unconsciously, very similarly to the instinctive nature of Darwin’s evolutionary theories where â€Å"emotions regulate our behaviour to ensure our genes survive†(Cartwright, 74). Freud believed that not dealing with inner conflict in is the cause of mental illness and maladjustment. Therefore the quality of life and possibly the quantity of life have a greater chance of decreasing over time. Defence mechanisms serve as a purpose to protect from inner conflict and mental instability. In order to achieve this mental harmony, Freud introduces the psychological theories of repression and sublimation. Repression is the process of banishing feelings of anxiety or trauma from the conscious mind. This particular defence relates closely to the theme of unconsciousness that Darwin discusses. Freud’s theory of sublimation also echoes Darwin. Sublimation is another one of the mind’s defence mechanisms to which applying this mechanisms means the â€Å"unacceptable impulse finds a useful, socially acceptable means of expression†(Cordon, 83). For Darwin this meant using anxiety and a heightened sense of emotional arousal for an advantage in the wilderness. From a more civilized perspective Freud explains this over emotional state of mind and applies it to an emotional outlet. For example, he gives the example of artistic expression. Both psychologists understand the need for adapting these emotions to the environment. Freud took Darwin’s defence mechanism theories regarding animalistic pack mentally and applied it to psychoanalysis by observing the behavioural traits of individuals in a group setting. He noticed â€Å"an individual can behave very differently as part of a group than one would normally expect†(Westerink, 176). The introduction of an individual to a group setting, as Freud observed, allows the unconscious mind to exist in a much more instinctive way. For Freud, the group will survive when there is a leader but he determined this as a psychological illusion. From a psychological standpoint, pack mentality develops from a group of individuals seeking guidance and protection as adaptive strategies. It does not necessarily mean there is a true leader with inherent abilities to achieve those results but instead a group wanting the same goal and that goal is survival. The unconscious Psychoanalysis stemmed from Freud’s â€Å"insights into the ways in which the meaning of individual’s words and actions exceeded their conscious self-perceptions (Sharpe Faulkner, 5). Freud believed heavily that the unconscious mind largely influenced behaviour. He primarily examined how humans could develop behavioural and personality traits that were outside of their conscious awareness. Through observations, which became known as psychoanalysis, Freud explained this unconscious behaviour originated from innate drives. These innate drives coincide with instinct. For Darwin this unconscious state of mind manifested itself in innate instincts. This behaviour trait overlapped between humans and animals. Darwin’s observations led him to believe that for the most part animals were unconscious of their actions and thrived primarily on basic necessities such as food and shelter. There is an obvious connection regarding the importance of the unconscious mind to both Darwinian theories and psychoanalysis. Ultimately Freud and Darwin share in the belief in primitive behaviour that is somewhat regulated by our social circles and societal values. Darwinian Theory Influenced Psychoanalysis Darwin’s writings are valuable for understanding his own concepts regarding evolution and its contribution to human behaviour but also for the development of new psychological avenues and areas for further research. Freud was able to advance and build upon Darwin’s discoveries due to social and scientific advancements of the 20th century. Therefore Darwin’s influence proves to be exceptionally relevant to Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis and ongoing within the modern psychological field.