Presentation Sample on Cognitive Science

Presentation Sample on Cognitive Science Cognitive Science Overview of the David Rosenthal’s Higher-Order-Theory (HOT Theory) When the word HOT theory or Higher-Order-Theory is mentioned, the question that comes to the mind of a learner is: What could be the meaning of HOT theory or what does higher-order-theory means in actual sense? For the sake of those who might not have come across this theory, HOT theory or what is also known as Higher-Order-Theory in the perspective of David Rosenthal, is described in various ways as indicated herein: There is no mental condition that is conscious if one is not aware of that condition. Thus, a mental condition or state is considered conscious only if one is aware of the himself/herself as being in that condition. David also adds that human beings are aware of mental conditions that are conscious just by having ideas that one is in that condition. In the perspective of David, the higher order-thoughts are rare of conscious thoughts; they are different from states they are about. The standard procedure applied to differentiate mental consciousness in daily psychologies involves a differentiation made in the context that an individual is in a position to report his/her mental condition. However, David adds that humans cannot report mental conditions that are not conscious in nature. Another important issue that should be noted in the higher-order-thought is that higher-order-thoughts accompany mental conditions, hence enabling one to make mental condition reports. Humans do not have higher-order knowledge of mental conditions and thus are not conscious, hence cannot r eport their mental states. What are the Basic Tenets of David Rosenthal’s Theory? So what exactly are the tenets or the basic components of David Rosenthal’s Higher-Order-Theory? I am confident that many people, interested in learning various aspects of this theory may want to determine what exactly makes this theory. That is, what are the basic tenets of this theory? To begin with, Rosenthal’s theory is based in three major tenets. These tenets are the first order experience, second/higher-order-thought and the third order-thought. Rosenthal believes that these three tenets are what enable an individual to express his mental conditions or mental state, without necessarily having to report them. These tenets make the Higher-Order-theory a unique aspect of theory owing to the fact that: The conscious mental condition of a person entails that the person has thoughts or sensation about his mental state. In this regard, the conscious state is usually accompanied by series of rough simultaneous higher-order-thoughts concerning a specific mental condition. That is, the consciousness mental condition of a person is introspectively complemented by a second level higher-order-thought. That is, the unconscious state of the mind is complemented by the conscious mental state, which is also complemented by the introspective conscious condition. An example of the unconscious state occurs when is not aware of his state of mind, hence cannot make sense of any information. In relation to the conscious state, or what David refers to second level higher-order-thought, one is a position to determine his state of mind, but cannot make report of this state. The second level higher-order-thought is usually complemented by the introspective state where one is able to analyze and examine data, hence provide a report about it. Positive Criticism of David’s Higher-Order-Theory Many philosophers and scholars who support David’s higher-order-theory hold the view that consciousness can be explained by the relationship between two main levels of mental conditions, whereby the higher-order mental condition assumes another mental condition. This aspect may occur through sensation or thought. This may occur in situations such as; a person using a computer acquires the sensation of the black and white color of his/her computer. Such aspects of sensations are usually considered conscious by virtue of higher-order-theories, basically because an individual has a higher order state concerning such sensations. Supporters of David’s higher-order-theory have also applied the concept of two distinctions that are important in the differentiation of consciousness among creatures. The first distinction may be made among creatures using conditional consciousness as well as introspective consciousness. The second distinction is usually referred as transitive as it entails a consideration of an object; that is distinction made on the basis of binary relationship between elements for instance such that if a situation applies is i.e. A where A is considered wider than B and B is wider than C, the A is automatically wider than C. Negative Critics/ Criticism As learners, it is important that we explore various arguments concerning theories that have been proposed by many researchers. That is, a consideration of both the positive perspectives as well as opposing perspectives. This is a crucial part of learning; it increases our knowledge, by enhancing our understanding of the reasons why people have different perspectives and their impacts on issues. Considering the case of David’s Higher-Order-Theory, there are two main critics that are known by their eloquence and fierceness in relation to expressing their critical views, coupled by application of evidence. The main two critics of this theory are: Kati Balog: He is known for his fierce expression of ideas, and critical analysis on different issues. Apparently, Kati Balog has also made significant contributions in regard to enhancing the understanding of David Rosenthal’s theory and other crucial issues associated with it. In his view, David-s Higher-Order-Theory was presented in a wrong manner. He emphasizes that David was wrong to claim that his theory is self-evident by linking awareness of the state and consciousness. He also believes that David did not account for how individuals can access certain aspects of mental conditions and report through verbal channels. As such, this theory was characterized by limited explanation, that is, through the failure to define the phenomenal properties being indicated in the statements. In this aspect, Kati Balog believes that David Rosenthal was wrong by terming or calling this theory a theory of access consciousness, as he should have named it phenomenal consciousness theory. An other major weakness exhibited in this theory according to Kati Balog is that it appears to have shown that there is a likelihood of inaccessible mental conditions, despite the fact that there is simultaneous occurrence of awareness and consciousness. On this account, Kati Balog believes that the Higher-Order-Theory does not appear to highlight how the access to consciousness is achieved. Lastly, he believes that the explanation provided by Rosenthal is not satisfactory in nature in a field that is characterized by persuading theorists and metaphysical aspects of argument. Papineau: He has also provided his views on David’s Higher-Order Theory. He asserts that this theory has propagated a false dilemma among learners, due to the manner through, which it is over-simplified. Papineau also argues that David presented his theory in an ambiguous manner. The false dilemma created by this theory according to Papineau is based on the fact that the status of experience relies on judgments made later or the later higher-level order memory. That is, one mental state depends on the next level mental state to make judgments. Papineau also argues that David’s higher-order-theory is a type of theory that causes a threat to backwards causation of consciousness; that is a consciousness that relies on a later judgment from higher-order-thoughts. He explains that this backwards causation occurs as a result of the denial of phenomenally experienced states/conditions. What are the Insights/Lessons that we can learn from this theory? I hope all of us are aware of the fact that theories are meant to improve our insights and widen our scope of reasoning. From David’s theory, there are various lessons that we can learn. To begin with, this theory, through the three main tenets of consciousness, enables us to understand that reasoning process occurs through states. The first state is characterized by unconscious nature of the mind that is usually complemented by a higher-order thought, the conscious state of the mind, which is also ultimately complemented by the introspective state of the mind. The other lesson that we can learn from this theory is that the nature of state of consciousness between animas and human beings are different. Animals or what David refers as creatures make judgment through conditional consciousness, while reasoning and reporting among humans is made through what is referred as transitive consciousness as it is usually based in an object. In summary, there are various issues that emerge from an analysis of David’s theory on a similar basis like any other theory. The first issue is that this theory is made of three main tenets, the introspective, higher-order thought and the unconscious state. This theory has also been a subject to both positive and negative aspects of criticism, although there are no discussions from David indicating his counter-arguments in relation to negative critics. The theory is also an indication of how scholars have an understanding of various issues ascribed to psychological facets. We can also learn that some critics have provided proof that there is neural evidence that has led to the realization of higher-order-theory enabling individuals to be aware of their mental conditions. This awareness is deemed necessary for making mental conditions report, however, there are alternatives that provide suggestions which dispute the necessity of metal awareness. These critics have emphasized that there is a significant difference between other theories of the brain and Rosenthal’s theory. This is mainly due to the fact that Rosenthal method does not indicate empirical commitment to the philosophical approaches consciousness theory for instance: It cannot provide explanations how an individual can have dreams and fails to explain the dream a few hours later.

Pest Analysis of Russian Retail Market - 1179 Words

PEST Analysis The PEST analysis is used in this report to evaluate the political, economic, social and technological aspects of the macroeconomic environment in the targeted market, Russia. This study helps to frame the basis for the decision-making about a possible market entry. Thus, it is of vital importance to scrutinize the macroeconomic environment as part of the market research. Political and Legal Aspects According to the Russian 1993 Constitution, Russia is a democratic federative state with a republican form of government grounded in the rule of law (pwc, 2012). After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has gradually opened up and after a seven-year transitional period with numerous market reforms, political stability†¦show more content†¦(pwc, 2012) The country further integrated within the world economy by entering the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2012 (Datamonitor, 2011). Economic Aspects Russia of 2011 is characterized by a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16.750, GDP and FDI growth of 4.3% and 33% respectively. Furthermore, the ease of doing business in the country improved by 4 ranks between 2011 and 2012 and hence Russia is ranked 112th in 2012 (Datamonitor, 2011; pwc, 2012). Historically successful economic reforms during the 1990s led to liberalization of the Russian economy and to high growth rates. Yet, the global economic downturn beginning in 2008 led to a negative growth of 7.7% in 2009. However, the country’s economy managed to quickly recover, achieving a 3.9% GDP growth in 2010, mainly due to the high oil prices (Datamonitor, 2011). Improved competitiveness and higher oil prices facilitated a turnaround in the current account, from a deficit in 1998 to a surplus of 12% of GDP in 1999. Since 2000, Russia has maintained a current account surplus, which dropped from around $102bn in 2008 to around $47bn in 2009 (Datamonitor, 2011; pwc, 2012). 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Continual risks of postoperative condition Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) ? Answer: Introduction In case of arthroscopic surgeries, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus are common. The ACL helps to stabilize and provide support to the joints. In the case scenario, Mr. James Versace is 17 years old adolescent, who is a soccer player. He faced problem in exercise and pain. Other medical problems of Mr. Versace are asthma, dermatitis, subluxed his left patella, allergic problem and hayfever. The assignment discusses about the continual risks of postoperative condition. The current therapeutic regime is discussed that helps to reduce the risk factors. In the section, manual therapy, rationale, and intervention are discussed. The benefits of evidenced based nursing are discussed. Continual risks of postoperative condition Westermann et al. (2014) mentioned that every surgery has some risks that is known as the complication. However, the meniscus repair is one of the safest processes, in which the risk rate is 1.3%. The main complication of the meniscus repair is the injuries to the skin nerves. Other complications of the postoperative condition are knee stiffness and infection, which are uncommon but can occur. In such circumstances, Wasserstein et al. (2013) mentioned that the doctors need to minimize the risks of complications that will help the patient to overcome the surgical risks. In the case scenario, Mr. Versace has various health complications. Therefore, before the medication, the doctor and nurse need to check his medical history as he has allergic problem. He has allergies in lactose, cashews, animal fur, peanuts, and pollen. Therefore, the nurse needs to be careful about his diet as well, which may increase the complications of the postoperative condition. The nurse needs to observe him a nd provide intensive care to avoid the infection. He needs to take complete bed rest and avoid the alcohol consumption. From the case scenario, it is clear that Mr. Versace takes alcohol occasionally. Therapeutic regime In postoperative condition, the doctor can suggest about the rehabilitation to the patient that will help them to get over the problem. The rehabilitation technique with the sound rehabilitation plays major role in the treatment of the meniscus repair. With the medication, the physiotherapy is also important that will help in leg movement. As Mr. Versace is an adolescent athlete, he needs to get over the problem as earlier as possible. In such cases, physical therapy helps the patient to get back in his normal life. To provide the quality to the patient, who has gone through arthroscopic surgeries, need to understand the biomechanics. Achtnich et al. (2016) suggested that with the medication, the physical exercise is necessary that can help the patient to avoid the complication. The clinical evaluation and the treatment techniques ensure the optimal outcomes. In such circumstance, communication plays key role. The nurse needs to have proper communication skill that will help to know about the patient requirement. In such condition, the medical lab reports can help the nurses as well to know about the condition of the patient. Therefore, the nurse needs to check the lab reports minutely. Manual therapy The main purposes of the manual therapy are to modulate the pain, increase the motion range, reduce the soft tissues inflammation, improve the contractile tissue repair with the extensibility, and facilitate the movement. As mentioned by Forkel et al. (2015), manual therapy refers to the application of the manual forces of therapist to improve quality and range of motion of the soft tissues and joints. Michalitsis et al. (2015) mentioned that the mobilization is one of the manual technique, which replicate the normal joint via the repeated passive motion at the low speed. The normal joint moves smoothly at varying amplitudes. On the other, Chahla et al. (2016) defined that manipulation is the fast and small force with the small amplitude, in which the joint is moved in high speed. The manual therapy helps to improve the joint mobility and joint function. In case of Mr. Versace, he needs the manual therapy as well so that he can be able to play soccer again. In case of manual therapy, the joint glides need particular planes so that the movement can be done smoothly. In case of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus, manual therapy helps the patient in movement (Anderson Anderson, 2015). This helps to reduce the complications of arthroscopic surgeries and provide benefits to the patient. Nursing intervention The patient Mr. Versace is 17 years old male, who have been admitted for the arthroscopic surgeries due to anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the repair of the torn meniscus. In the current context, the main problems are prioritized to manage his pain and knee movement problem. Managing pain: For managing the pain, the pain score needs to be managed with the pain measuring scale. This is based on the pain management plan, which needs to be developed. To reduce the pain, the doctor suggested diclofenac and mentioned the dosage of the drug to 25 mg. therefore the patient takes 1 to 2 tablets daily for the pain management. The oral medication helps him to reduce the pain. Duchman et al. . (2015) suggested that when the pain of the pain will be reduced, he will be able to move his knee and the complications will be reduced as well. Managing asthma and allergy: The patient is suffering from asthma and allergy problem. To reduce the problems he needs to modify his dietary habit first. He needs to exclude the peanuts and cashews from the diet. The nurse needs to monitor the patient and note down the problems of the patient. Mr. Versace needs to take sufficient amount of water that helps to maintain the fluid balance of the patient body. The doctor prescribed some drugs to reduce the problems of the asthma and allergy. The nurse needs to follow the medication routine of the patient and provide the medication timely. Mr. Versace needs to take the salbutamol 100 mg with the CFC inhaler. The dosages need to be maintained. Another medication includes flticasone, advantan, prednisolone and epipen. The administration of the injection needs proper routes and dosage. The nurse should be careful about the routes and dosage. Rationale Nurse responsibility Rationale Check the administration of medication (drugs and injections) Before administration of drugs, the nurse should check dosage and route. However, the dosage needs to be applied in a safe level (Shybut et al. 2015). Overdose of the medication is fatal for the patient. The overdose of the drugs that are prescribed for the asthma and allergy can be fatal for Mr. Versace. Therefore, the nurse needs to recheck the dosage of the medication. Check symptoms of the patient The medication and injection needs to be provided after detecting the signs and symptoms of the patient. As the patient has various problems, therefore the medication should be provided carefully. Check route with dosage of medication administration The nurse needs to check the dosage and route of the medication. Proper implication of medication can help the patient to reduce the problems and get well soon. Observe the patient after medication The medication is provided to reduce effects of asthma, allergy, and pain. The nurse should monitor the patient, which help to develop the patients health. Take the consent of the patient and family members Before applying the medication, the nurse needs to take the consent of the patient and his family members (Mall et al. 2014). Table 1: Rationale of nursing intervention The benefits of evidenced based nursing Evidence based nursing has various benefits, which include to provide the quality care to the patient. The quality care helps to improve the patient outcomes (Hamer Collinson, 2014). The evidence based nursing helps the nurses to increase their skills as well as the critical thinking and decision-making. As result, the clinical performance of the nurse develops with the experience. Evidence based nursing helps to provide knowledge and satisfaction to the nurses as it helps to enhance the patient outcomes. Implementation of the evidence-based practice can manage the available resources, which is used effectively and efficiently (DiCenso, Guyatt Ciliska, 2014). However, there are various barriers that needs to be reduced to increase the rate of positive patient outcome. Conclusion Based on the above discussion, it can be said that the meniscus repair is one of the safest processes, in which the risk rate is less. As the patient has various problems including asthma and allergies, therefore the medication process should be done properly. the patient needs to take the medication timely and should take rest that will help him to get back in the normal lifestyle. In such cases, the physical therapy and manual therapy provide relief to the patient. Hence, it is necessary for the patient. The fluid balance of the patients body needs to be maintained, which helps in the treatment. As well as the patient needs to be careful about the diet and avoid the foods that can create allergic problem. References Achtnich, A., Herbst, E., Forkel, P., Metzlaff, S., Sprenker, F., Imhoff, A. B., Petersen, W. (2016). Acute proximal anterior cruciate ligament tears: outcomes after arthroscopic suture anchor repair versus anatomic single-bundle reconstruction.Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic Related Surgery,32(12), 2562-2569. Anderson, A. F., Anderson, C. N. (2015). Correlation of meniscal and articular cartilage injuries in children and adolescents with timing of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.The American journal of sports medicine,43(2), 275-281. Chahla, J., Dean, C. S., Moatshe, G., Mitchell, J. J., Cram, T. R., Yacuzzi, C., LaPrade, R. F. (2016). Meniscal Ramp Lesions: Anatomy, Incidence, Diagnosis, and Treatment.Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine,4(7), 2325967116657815. DiCenso, A., Guyatt, G., Ciliska, D. (2014).Evidence-based nursing: A guide to clinical practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Duchman, K. R., Westermann, R. W., Spindler, K. P., Reinke, E. K., Huston, L. J., Amendola, A., Wolf, B. R. (2015). The fate of meniscus tears left in situ at the time of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a 6-year follow-up study from the MOON cohort.The American journal of sports medicine,43(11), 2688-2695. Forkel, P., Reuter, S., Sprenker, F., Achtnich, A., Herbst, E., Imhoff, A., Petersen, W. (2015). Different patterns of lateral meniscus root tears in ACL injuries: application of a differentiated classification system.Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy,23(1), 112-118. Hamer, S., Collinson, G. (2014).Achieving evidence-based practice: A handbook for practitioners. Elsevier Health Sciences. Mall, N. A., Chalmers, P. N., Moric, M., Tanaka, M. J., Cole, B. J., Bach Jr, B. R., Paletta Jr, G. A. (2014). Incidence and trends of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in the United States.The American journal of sports medicine,42(10), 2363-2370. Michalitsis, S., Vlychou, M., Malizos, K. N., Thriskos, P., Hantes, M. E. (2015). Meniscal and articular cartilage lesions in the anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee: correlation between time from injury and knee scores.Knee Surgery, Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy,23(1), 232-239. Shybut, T. B., Vega, C. E., Haddad, J., Alexander, J. W., Gold, J. E., Noble, P. C., Lowe, W. R. (2015). Effect of lateral meniscal root tear on the stability of the anterior cruciate ligamentdeficient knee.The American journal of sports medicine,43(4), 905-911. Wasserstein, D., Dwyer, T., Gandhi, R., Austin, P. C., Mahomed, N., Ogilvie-Harris, D. (2013). A matched-cohort population study of reoperation after meniscal repair with and without concomitant anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.The American journal of sports medicine,41(2), 349-355. Westermann, R. W., Wright, R. W., Spindler, K. P., Huston, L. J., Wolf, B. R. (2014). Meniscal repair with concurrent anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: operative success and patient outcomes at 6-year follow-up.The American journal of sports medicine,42(9), 2184-2192.

Darwins influence on psychoanalysis free essay sample

Charles Darwin’s substantially influential writing examines a vast rang of topics that were brought to the attention of many leading scholars throughout history. Darwin preceded Sigmund Freud and the invention of psychoanalysis by approximately 50 years. Through the exploration of Darwinian theory and the later development of psychoanalysis, it is clear that Charles Darwin’s theories had a profound influence of the development of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. This becomes clear after analyzing such themes as sexual motivation through evolution, the Freudian ego, the connection between human and animal emotion, adaptive responses and the unconscious mind. Sexual Evolution and Motivation Darwin and Freud both evaluated the connection between biological traits and inheritance as expressed through social constructs, such as sexual impulses and desire. This theory manifests itself by examining human biology, neurology, evolution and applying it to expressed behavioural traits. A fundamental and intrinsic element of human behaviour stems from evolutionary adaptations in which basic desires are adapted through the recognition of success from earlier generations. We will write a custom essay sample on Darwins influence on psychoanalysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Through this evolution, both Darwin and Freud placed an enormous emphasis on an individual’s desire for survival, the ultimate goal being self-preservation. Darwin and Freud’s theories converge at the point of primal and instinctive behaviour. Darwin’s most relevant discovery was natural selection. He approached his work as purely biological by viewing humans as primates. He explains â€Å"their forms of behaviour and social organization as natural manifestations of their elementary biological dispositions for survival and reproduction†(Carroll, 52). This meant that the motivation for sexual reproduction was unconscious and biologically wired into human for their survival. The human with the most efficient and best adapted traits were more likely to survive. Choosing a mate is based upon the Darwinian psychological theory that â€Å"views attractiveness in terms of reproductive fitness†(Cartwright, 56). Humans choose mates that appear physically fit and fertile, resulting in a child Who is also physically fit. Freud’s theories parallel Darwin’s but were taken a step further. The primary sexual motivation through desiring survival traits and reproduction was the foundation for Freud’s belief in two basic impulses of man, pleasure and self- preservation. Psychoanalysis does not focus on the same behaviour over and over again, â€Å"but about the recognition of constantly changing and shifting individual†(Westerink, 87) where a psychoanalyst would examine repressed behaviour from â€Å"symptoms back to their origin†(Westerink, 88). Freud also placed an emphasis on viewing humans as having primal sexual urges similar to that of primates but incorporated humans as pleasure seekers. He endeavoured to understand how the combination of pleasure seeking, individual needs could coexist with reproduction in the name of evolution. The conclusion was that â€Å"evolution does not take place without periods of decline, reaction or restoration†(Westerink, 101), therein lies the need for evolution. But most notably, humans must rely on reality to reign in and control the need for pleasure and understand the true motivation of sexual desire, reproduction. To Freud, the desire for pleasure and immediate satisfaction factors into sexual motivation but also â€Å"the individual does carry on a two fold existence; one to serve his own purposes and the other as a link in the chain†(Sharpe Faulkner, 39), a chain to have enduring genetics. This Freudian theory coincides with Darwin’s belief in altruism. By recognizing the success of your species as individual success, the group will have a greater chance of survival and continue to reproduce. This begs the question if Darwin’s altruistic theories were truly unselfish but actually â€Å"particular people achieve their own pleasure and satisfaction†(Radcliffe, 175). Freud combined the influence of Darwin’s natural selection, with his own theory regarding the pleasure principle. Darwin’s evolutionary theories factored greatly into the development of sexual motivation from a biological standpoint allowing Freud creates a picture of sexual evolution from a more evolved psyche in the early 20th century. The Connection Between Human and Animal Emotion Freud and Darwin both assessed the human capacity for emotion, where this form of communication originated and the value of its expression. In doing so, they both equated the origin of emotional expression as being very similar to the primal need for communication through adaptive responses. In Darwin’s book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, he discusses the human mind and how it related to the animal mind through evolution. His writings again are biological in nature and deal with emotion as a tool for survival. In his writing, Darwin notes, emotion â€Å"is of importance to our welfare. They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant†(Darwin, 364) Darwin’s writings reveal an in depth study of the expression of emotion ranging from the actual physiological acts involved in emotion to the special expression of man. His research confirms, â€Å"man is derived from some lower animal form†(Darwin, 365). The emotions studied are wide ranging such as suffering, fear, anxiety, love, guilt and anger. For example, Darwin observes the act of weeping as an infant. This leads him to believe that when an infant weeps, he or she is expecting a result, whether that be food, attention or the relief from a state of suffering. The infant will â€Å"cry out loudly, like the young of other animals, partly as a call to their parents for aid and partly from any great exertion†(Darwin, 174). Darwin’s observations of emotion, particularly that of a child resembles very closely to Freud’s id. The id represents the most basic inherited instincts that are most obvious during childhood and expressed through emotion. â€Å"The infant, possessing no ability to delay release, demands immediate gratification†(Cordon, 223). The newborn would then be â€Å"a creature entirely governed by the id†¦demanding food, drink, eliminating bodily waste and affection†(Cordon, 223). Once the child’s needs are met, they are content. This theory contributes to the desire for pleasure and the distaste for anything uncomfortable or as Freud described it, the pleasure principle. Darwin is related this behaviour and expression for emotion as a survival tactic in order to have the infants needs met through communication. Morality and the Ego Darwin and Freud’s theories both weighed heavily on the similarity between man and animal. There is a primal urge exhibited through emotion, sexual motivation and the search for pleasure as seen in Freud’s id and Darwin’s observations of adolescents. But what did these men say about censoring that primal behaviour to live in harmony with others? It appears that Darwin had an influence over Freud’s explanation of morality as well. There was a demand for balance during evolutionary stages in which â€Å"Darwin†¦[recognized] a fundamental fact of evolution, accept a basic moral intuition†(Zamulinski, 5). This morality is seen as an adaptation to provide group harmony and avoid isolation or seclusion and ultimately death. Darwin speaks at length regarding a biological kinship, which relates to the previously discussed notion of altruism. There is a community of organisms living together and working towards the goal of survival and preservation. For this to occur there must be harmony within the group. Darwin describes this harmony as having an individual sense of morality. Treating the members of your own group well is known as Group Selection and â€Å"group selection does provide a setting in which helping behaviour directed at members of one’s own group can evolve†(Zamulinski, 11). Freud adapted this sense of morality into something he referred to as the Ego. The Ego is what interacts with the conscious part of the mind and it works along side the id to delay the impulse for immediate gratification. The Freudian theory of the ego gives the mind the ability to interact consciously with the world and because of this it connects humans with reality. The primitive id â€Å"must conform to the limitations agreed on by the society in which the child is growing up†(Cordon, 225). This is the role of the Ego, acting as somewhat of a â€Å"referee or mediator constantly negotiating the conflicts that inevitably arise†(Cordon, 224) when the id and the ego interact with one another. The mind will then connect with what is socially acceptable and adheres to the moral guidelines of society. Both Freud and Darwin felt that in order to have individual evolutionary success, one must belong to a group and in order for this group to have evolutionary success there must be behavioural guidelines. Having boundaries for acceptable behaviour, moral obligations and censorship within the mind proved relevant to both Freud and Darwin regarding self-preservation. Adaptive Responses In order for survival of the fittest to occur, humans must be able to maintain mental stability. This stability is seen as emotional adaptive responses that appear in both Darwinian theories and psychoanalysis. According to â€Å"Darwinian psychology, mental health can be seen as the proper functioning of an adaptive emotional system†(Cartwright, 75). When human emotion adapts to the environment, there is a greater chance for survival and a heightened mental stability. In evolutionary terms for example â€Å"anxiety response and manifestations of over anxiousness can be seen in terms of an adaptive response to signals from the environment†(Cartwright, 94) or heightened sense of awareness. This sense of awareness can be used as a tool for defence and protection. Freud also concerned himself with the state of mental health and the minds ability to create defence mechanisms for the purpose of protection. For example, lets look at the earlier discussed ego in which it contains â€Å"a specialized set of tools intended to minimize the anxiety resulting from internal conflict†(Cordon, 227). These defence mechanisms occur automatically and unconsciously, very similarly to the instinctive nature of Darwin’s evolutionary theories where â€Å"emotions regulate our behaviour to ensure our genes survive†(Cartwright, 74). Freud believed that not dealing with inner conflict in is the cause of mental illness and maladjustment. Therefore the quality of life and possibly the quantity of life have a greater chance of decreasing over time. Defence mechanisms serve as a purpose to protect from inner conflict and mental instability. In order to achieve this mental harmony, Freud introduces the psychological theories of repression and sublimation. Repression is the process of banishing feelings of anxiety or trauma from the conscious mind. This particular defence relates closely to the theme of unconsciousness that Darwin discusses. Freud’s theory of sublimation also echoes Darwin. Sublimation is another one of the mind’s defence mechanisms to which applying this mechanisms means the â€Å"unacceptable impulse finds a useful, socially acceptable means of expression†(Cordon, 83). For Darwin this meant using anxiety and a heightened sense of emotional arousal for an advantage in the wilderness. From a more civilized perspective Freud explains this over emotional state of mind and applies it to an emotional outlet. For example, he gives the example of artistic expression. Both psychologists understand the need for adapting these emotions to the environment. Freud took Darwin’s defence mechanism theories regarding animalistic pack mentally and applied it to psychoanalysis by observing the behavioural traits of individuals in a group setting. He noticed â€Å"an individual can behave very differently as part of a group than one would normally expect†(Westerink, 176). The introduction of an individual to a group setting, as Freud observed, allows the unconscious mind to exist in a much more instinctive way. For Freud, the group will survive when there is a leader but he determined this as a psychological illusion. From a psychological standpoint, pack mentality develops from a group of individuals seeking guidance and protection as adaptive strategies. It does not necessarily mean there is a true leader with inherent abilities to achieve those results but instead a group wanting the same goal and that goal is survival. The unconscious Psychoanalysis stemmed from Freud’s â€Å"insights into the ways in which the meaning of individual’s words and actions exceeded their conscious self-perceptions (Sharpe Faulkner, 5). Freud believed heavily that the unconscious mind largely influenced behaviour. He primarily examined how humans could develop behavioural and personality traits that were outside of their conscious awareness. Through observations, which became known as psychoanalysis, Freud explained this unconscious behaviour originated from innate drives. These innate drives coincide with instinct. For Darwin this unconscious state of mind manifested itself in innate instincts. This behaviour trait overlapped between humans and animals. Darwin’s observations led him to believe that for the most part animals were unconscious of their actions and thrived primarily on basic necessities such as food and shelter. There is an obvious connection regarding the importance of the unconscious mind to both Darwinian theories and psychoanalysis. Ultimately Freud and Darwin share in the belief in primitive behaviour that is somewhat regulated by our social circles and societal values. Darwinian Theory Influenced Psychoanalysis Darwin’s writings are valuable for understanding his own concepts regarding evolution and its contribution to human behaviour but also for the development of new psychological avenues and areas for further research. Freud was able to advance and build upon Darwin’s discoveries due to social and scientific advancements of the 20th century. Therefore Darwin’s influence proves to be exceptionally relevant to Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis and ongoing within the modern psychological field.

Comparisons and contrasts of white goods and hospitality industries

Background of white goods and hospitality industries On a global scale, white goods industry is a major domestic appliance industry that manufactures microwaves, large cooking appliances, dishwashers, home laundry and refrigeration appliances among others items. It is imperative to note that globally, white goods industries makes tremendous sales from their products that range from industrial or commercial products, garden appliances to small consumer appliances.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparisons and contrasts of white goods and hospitality industries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research studies carried out in 2003 pointed out that the value of sale on domestic appliances from these industries was approximately US$163,000 million (Bray, Waring Cooper, 2011). It is also worth to note that the white goods sector in Australia alone generated a sales value from its large kitchen appliances of approxim ately $2200 million in 2003. The key players of White goods industry in concentrating ownership and restructuring production in the regional markets are group of multinational corporations (MNCs) such as the Asia-Pacific, North America and European Union. The retail sales for White goods products globally are made by LG Group, Haier, general Electric (GE), Bosch-Siemens, Electrolux and Whirlpool which are all Multinational Corporations. The Australian White goods sector displays characteristics which are similar to that of other white goods global chains. Research studies indicate that there has been a major change in employment in this industry emanating from standardization and simplification of production platforms in which standard engineering frameworks are used. Furthermore, introduction of just-in-time, flexible techniques and computer aided manufacturing methods used in this industry have not only enhanced the speed of product renewal but have also in conjunction with laws a nd regulations, reshaped employment relations in the industry. On the other hand, one of the industries in Australia that has demonstrated rapid growth is hospitality industry. It has displayed some remarkable shift from the well known traditional secondary and primary service sectors. As a prime example, it was ranked the seventh largest employer in the period 2004-2005 from its earlier position twelve in 1989-1990 (O’Brien O’Donnell, 2000). Other industries in Australia that have also exhibited more rapid growth include health and community services and that of property and business services. However, in terms of employment relations and labor market, hospitality industry in Australia has continued to exhibit distinctive features.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, its employment conditions have continued to be poor with more of low pay, low skill ed jobs, high labor turnover and casual employments among others. In addition, its employment relations too have been immensely affected and have been characterized by poor working conditions, unemployment and low membership in unions. In order to regulate its working conditions and wages, it has continued to depend on the award system (Waring Bray, 2006). This essay compares and contrasts white goods and hospitality industries in Australia. Comparisons To begin with, both white goods and hospitality industries in Australia are facing challenges from national industrial relations following the introduction of legislations on products, employment relations, advertisements and marketing. The laws and regulations are controlling various operations done by the industries and this impact on employments relations prevailing in these industries. The legal environment in which these industries operate has significant legal changes that affect their operations. The areas that have been most impacted by these changes include employment relations, demand for products or services bought by consumers and the cost incurred for developing new procedures and systems. Secondly, both industries have also been able to experience growth despite changes from their microenvironments. Changes in the market and business trends today have put pressure on both firms to increase their employment relations by developing and building focus on core competencies. Due to intensive competition and increasing uncertainty, MNCs have maintained sustainable advantage and made tremendous gains because they have improved on employment relations with their workforce. In white goods industry located in Australia, an increase in global competition affects its functional roles and other issues that deal with managerial roles or leadership in business. According to Waring and Bray (2006), consistent provision of superior value and high quality products to customers is determined by a firm’s abil ity to establish strategic business decisions on employment relations as well as strategic capabilities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparisons and contrasts of white goods and hospitality industries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Through these, successful organizations have maintained customer satisfaction, achieved overall strategic goals and increased their production processes at a lower cost. For instance, white goods industry capabilities have been witnessed in the manner in which they have combined organizational knowledge, integrated technology and coordinated production skills at lower costs. It is imperative to note that MNCs have been able to relocate and downsize their production to locations of lower cost. This strategic move that white goods in Australia have adopted tends to transcend both the operations which are geographically dispersed and areas of traditional functions through creation of supportive infrastructure via investments. Production capability is built on investments on employment relations. This is fundamental in transforming the processes of production into competitive weapons and reducing unions bargaining power. Both industries have organizational structures having departments that plays host to important business and management functions. These departments include production, marketing and finance among others. These organizational structures describe the nature of strategy a company has. A bigger and more advanced structure denotes a greater global strategy unlike a structure that will house small and domestic business functions. For instance, due to global competition, white goods industry has adopted new and better ways of organizing there structures. The system of work and relationship has changed. An individual may be required to multitask, leaders may be required strategize for investments and policies for finance and to draw strategies for dev elopment and scientific research. This new structural organization combines autonomous and semi-autonomous way of administration. Increase in competition and MNC’s have led to an effective white goods organizational structure that has improved the level of productivity within the industry.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Employment relations in this industry have been done efficiently and effectively and as such, white goods industry in Australia has been able to produce and sell its high quality products at a low cost and still maintain a competitive advantage. Research studies attribute this to restructuring employment relations and production capabilities in such a way that productions are done at a low cost possible. Contrasts The hospitality industry in Australia, like in most nations in the world, has been affected by unstable equilibriums. A shift from short run to long run equilibrium is due to economic forces determined by a slight deviation in wages and prices from the equilibrium. In the same manner, employment and aggregate output causes fluctuations in the Australian economy. The level of employment and unemployment rises and falls during such time. Unemployment has remained high in the hospitality industry and the labor market has becomes slack. In turn, this affects the ability of the hospitality industry to employ more workforces and make better sales (Thompson, 2003). As such, the human resource management of large employers like white goods becomes formalized while in the hospitality industry, where there are many small employers, ad hoc systems are adopted in order to manage employees. It is imperative to note that due to reliance on the award systems in the hospitality industry, employment relations are strained and workers are less inclined to perform their duties. Since hospitality industries in Australia are small in size and spread out, it becomes cumbersome for unions, which have low bargaining power, to service and recruit members. Additionally, employment conditions in the hospitality industry have continued to be poor with more of low pay, low skilled jobs, high labor turnover and casual employments among others. Its employment relations too have been immensely affected and have been characterized by poor working conditions, unemployment and low mem bership in unions. In order to regulate its working conditions and wages, it has continued to depend on the award system (Anderson, Teicher Griffin, 2005). On the other hand, white goods industry through laws and regulations reduces the influence and power of unions in terms of bargaining. In turn, it eliminates support mechanisms that the union has that include bargaining fees and payment reduction done on union fees for non-union workers. This creates a favorable business environment especially in terms of employment relations. White goods industry, being a large manufacturer of microwaves, large cooking appliances, dishwashers, home laundry appliances and refrigeration appliances among others things needs to have enough employees to serve the adverse clients with various needs and work towards the organizational growth; the push to reduce the scope of bargaining by the industrial relations law and regulation will lead to more money being allocated for employees as wages which wi ll affect the organizational plans and expansion strategies (Anderson, Teicher Griffin, 2005). The laws and regulations set by the industry allow agreements made between non-unions and the white goods management team to be experimented. Moreover, the organizational structure of White goods industry is a representation of a business program that has a chain of command whereby officers of the company as well as the employees are categorized in units that show their level of importance and responsibility. The organizational structure defines relationship that should exist between the chain of command and employees. With this in place, a company stands a better chance of minimizing costs and maximizing results since everyone in the company will know how to interact with one another and with various departments in the company. In addition, workers will quite well, understand their responsibilities and their duties. An effective system of good governance forms its foundation in an organi zational structure that is competently built. This kind of organizational structure ensures that there is increased productivity through assigning areas of duty and power to the leaders as well as employees, ensuring that staff members are not under too much pressure or overworked. It is also important to build positive interaction among company leaders and employees. On the other hand, as earlier indicated, Australian hospitality industry has over the years suffered from employment challenges such as low pay to employees, low skilled jobs, high labor turnover and casual employment among others. This can be attributed to lack of efficient and effective organizational structure alongside poor employee relations. References Anderson, E., Teicher, J. Griffin, G. (2005). From industrial relations to workplace relations in the Australian taxation office: an incomplete but strategic transition. Journal of Industrial Relations. 47, 339-352. Bray, M., Waring, P. Cooper, R. (2011). Employm ent Relations: Theory and Practice. Sydney: McGraw-Hill. O’Brien, J. O’Donnell, M. (2000). Creating a new moral order? Cultural change in the Australian public service. Labour and Industry. 10, 57-76. Thompson, P. (2003). Disconnected capitalism: or why employers can’t keep their side of the bargain. Work, Employment and Society.17, 359-378. Waring, P. Bray, M. (2006). Evolving Employment Relations: Industry Studies from Australia. Sydney: McGraw-Hill. This essay on Comparisons and contrasts of white goods and hospitality industries was written and submitted by user Maximilian P. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

What Is AP International Diploma Do You Need One

What Is AP International Diploma Do You Need One SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The College Board’s AP program is recognized by colleges around the world. In addition to taking individual AP classes, students who are interested in attending school in another country can potentially earn the AP International Diploma. In this article, I’ll tell you what the AP Diploma is, how you can get it, and whether it’s worthwhile for you! What Is an AP International Diploma? The AP International Diploma (APID) is an award for students who have taken AP Exams and classes in high school and are interested in attending college abroad.The College Board offers this award because it's a more succinct way for colleges outside of a student's home country to assess performance in the AP program overall.The APID indicates that a student has successfully completed a well-rounded AP curriculum.It's also a way for the College Board's AP program to compete more directly with the IB program. You might think about shooting for an APDiploma if you’re a student in the US planning to apply to universities in other countries or if you’re an international student planning to apply to universities in the US.The APID indicates that a student has demonstrated excellence across a variety of subject areas within the AP curriculum.You don’t need to apply for the APID; it’s automatically awarded if you meet the requirements, which I will go over in the next section. How Can You Earn an AP International Diploma? To fulfill the requirements for the APID, you will need to take at least five AP Exams and earn a score of 3 or higher on all of them.You’ll have to take some specific types of AP courses to meet the APID standards. The first requirement is either two AP Exams in world language and culture or two AP Exams with one world language and culture course and one English course.For example, you could take the Spanish Language and Culture course and the French Language and Culture course.If you’re not taking two languages, you could take the English Literature and Composition course as a substitute for one of the language courses.Keep in mind that you can’t meet this requirement with two world language and culture courses that focus on the same language.Taking Spanish Language and Culture and Spanish Literature and Culture wouldn’t fulfill the requirement. The second APID requirement is one AP Exam that (surprise, surprise) emphasizes an international perspective.Classes you can use to fulfill this requirement include: World History Human Geography Comparative Government and Politics Art History Environmental Science Macroeconomics The third requirement is an AP Exam in either the sciences or math and computer science.Classes you can use to fulfill this requirement include: Calculus AB Calculus BC Computer Science A Statistics Biology Chemistry Environmental Science Physics 1 Physics 2 Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Physics C: Mechanics The last requirement is one additional AP Exam in a class of your choice.The only stipulation is that it can’t be an English or world language course. AP Psychology, AP U.S. History, and AP Music Theory are all examples of classes you could use to fulfill this requirement.Your choices will partially depend on which classes you decide to take for the other requirements. Here's an example of a set of five classes that would fulfill the requirements for the APID: Spanish Language and Culture English Literature and Composition World History Biology Psychology One exam can’t fulfill two requirements even if it fits into multiple categories.Environmental Science would be an acceptable class for both the second and third requirements, but you wouldn’t be able to take it and say that you’ve completed both of them.You would need to choose another class from one of the two lists to meet the APID standards.If you end up retaking any of your AP tests because you didn’t score a 3 or higher the first time, your highest score will be counted towards the diploma. For the International Diploma, only your peak performance on each AP exam will count! Should You Get an AP International Diploma? First off, you should consider whether the college where you’re applying recognizes AP classes in the admission process.You can search universities all over the world on this page to see whether they will accept AP Exams and classes as markers of academic achievement.At German universities, for example, candidates who have earned AP Exam scores of 3 or higher on four or five tests are admitted, provided they meet the specific requirements for their area of study.If you’re an international student and are applying to college in the US, it’s almost certain that the schools you choose will recognize your achievements in the AP program. Even if the school you’re interested in recognizes APs, the AP International Diploma may not do a whole lot to improve your chances of acceptance on its own.Colleges care about how many AP classes students have taken, and the APID requirements are a good way to keep yourself on track with taking APs in a variety of different subject areas.However, a student who is particularly interested in the sciences might take 5 AP classes without earning the APID because they took two science classes instead of a science class and an international perspective class.That student won’t look much different in the eyes of colleges from another student who took the same number of APs but did manage to fulfill the requirements for the APID. For example, German universities have different sets of AP requirements that don’t align exactly with the APID requirements and will vary depending on your major. In this case, you would want to avoid just going for the APID and pay closer attention to the specific policies.The AP Diploma represents a well-balanced collection of AP classes and a high level of achievement, but it’s not going to make or break your application. If you take five or more AP classes and earn high scores on the exams, but you don’t fulfill the APID requirements, you won’t be any worse off than a student who does.But if you’ve only taken three or four AP classes and need one or two more to fulfill the requirements, you might consider going for the Diploma.Having a concrete goal will make it easier to stay motivated and choose a well-rounded course schedule. That being said, you might go to a high school where only three or four AP classes are offered, and that’s ok.Focus on earning high grades and challenging yourself as much as possible with difficult classes.A strong course record for an international student doesn’t necessarily have to include the APID, but it should include as many APs and other high-level classes as possible that are relevant to your areas of interest. One pencil for each AP class! (Just kidding, don't actually take 25 AP classes. Yes, I counted the pencils; please take your judgments elsewhere.) Conclusion The AP International Diploma is an award for students who plan on applying to colleges outside of their home country. To earn the APID, you must take five AP Exams in certain specified subject areas and earn scores of 3 or higher on all of them. The APID shows colleges that you’ve challenged yourself with difficult courses in high school, but the award itself probably won’t make a huge difference in your application.Taking five or more AP courses (if they’re available at your school) and scoring well on the exams is a great way to make a positive impression on colleges regardless of whether your schedule meets APID guidelines. What's Next? Curious about other international diploma programs? Learn more about the Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE), created through Cambridge University in England. If you're working on planning your schedule,this guide will help you decidewhich AP classes to take. Read this article for more information about how difficult AP classes and exams will be for you. Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. 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DO STATES EMLPOY AID AS A TOOL OF FOREIGN POLICY DRAW UPON TWO Essay

DO STATES EMLPOY AID AS A TOOL OF FOREIGN POLICY DRAW UPON TWO EXAMPLES - Essay Example First, it must set its foreign agendas, which are the issues and challenges core to a government and its citizens’ well being (Kahler, 1998). Second, the appropriate policies have to be formulated, debated, voted and legalized/enacted. Third, the policies are adopted then implemented. Finally, the implementation and completion of these policies are evaluated and recommendations made for any practicable changes (Kahler, 1998). Foreign policies are quite unlike domestic policies that involve a lot of people and agencies. Normally, the head of states/governments (presidents and prime ministers) serve as the senior most diplomats for countries. Among the tools employed in foreign policy are diplomacy, foreign aid and military force. Diplomacy entails dealing with nations via discussions, negotiations, diplomatic messages and public statements on a variety of issues. On the other hand, foreign aid involves states assisting one another monetarily and materially so that they achieve their goals, in the process helping in improving their relations. The three common types of foreign aid used as foreign policy tools are military, economic development and humanitarian aid (Kahler, 1998). While military aid involves donating or trading in military equipment and technology to improve the military power of a given state or region of interest to the donor country, economic development aid is in the form of money or equipment loans, grants and donations to boost other states’ economy (Sogge, 2002). This paper explores the idea that foreign aid is a tool for foreign policy, citing two cases in which a state uses aid to promote its interests. Foreign Aid in US Foreign Policy The United States is one of the industrial, political and economic superpowers to whom foreign aid is an essential and integral part of foreign policy. There are several types of foreign aid that the United States regularly disburses to other countries. These categories of aid are disaster and humanitarian aid, military and security aid, and economic development aid. Among these types of foreign aid, the economic development aid accounts for approximately 60% of the total aid while the military and security assistance and the disaster and humanitarian relief account for 25% and 15% respectively. There are several reasons for which the United States extends foreign aid to its developing and strategic partners. For instance, U.S. foreign aid is given for development purposes and for humanitarian assistance in cases of emergencies/disasters. Having started giving foreign aid to developing nations in 1946, just after World War I, the United States’ foreign aid now runs into billions of dollars, making it one of the most controversial and debated tool of US foreign policy. The US and other Western nations learned about and started practicing foreign aid after the World War I after most of the destroyed countries such as Germany failed to effectively reconstruct their ec onomy and government. These devastated countries sought and received help from other states. After the First World War, the United Sates donated a whooping $12 billion dollars to Europe for government and economic reconstruction after which the US Congress then passed the European Recovery Plan (ERP), also referred to as the Marshall Plan after the Secretary of State George C. Marshall. This plan proposed the disbursement of another $13 billion in the five years following the $12